Linguistics - Introduction

Linguistics
Introduction
Text
A text refers to a unit of language organization that is higher than a sentence.
In other word, a text is a sequence of sentences that are related and connected.

The term text is taken to refer to some kind of completed communicative event as when we refer to the bible as a text.
Haliday and Hassan define text an any passage, spoken or written of whatever length that forms a unified whole.
A text maybe speak or written prose or verse dialogue or monologue a whole play or a novel a pore or a book or just a single proverb
There are certain features are characteristics of texts
A text is a unit of language in use it is not a grammatical but a communicative event. Thus, it is semanticunit. A unit of meaning not of form. Thus. any stretch (group ) of words that plays a part in a context is a text the important thing is that a text is made up of meanings,
Co-text (Context)
co-text refers to the surrounding linguistic elements which may need to be invoked in order to show how specific local interpretations depend on surrounding features of the text . The co-text of a word is the set of words used in the same phrase or sentence.
Genre
Genre refers to a set shared conventions which text invoke in single instances genre is a group of texts which seem to have similar features and perform similar functions
Intertextuality
Intertextuality refers to the transposition of one or more systems of signs into another.
There is always language before and around the text. Hence every text is an intertext.
Interdiscursivity
Interdiscursivity refers that one discourse form can be constituted from a configuration of text type or discourse Conventions.
For Example the short story makes use of dialogue that relates to the spoken mode and narration that is typically written. And Negm has argued that the letter genre makes use of interactive features as well as written Conventions.
Standards of textuality
1- Cohesion
2- Coherence
3- Intentionality
4- Acceptability
5- Informativity
6- Situationality
7- Intertextuality
Text Linguistics and other Disciplines
Text linguistics refers to any work in linguistics devoted to the text as the primary object of inquiry. There are some exemplary studies which demarcate the gradual evolution of text linguistics
1- Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the application of thoughts to words. It is the art of persuasion. Rhetoric is related to Poetry in that they both have an effect on the hearer. Both rely on persuasion.
Rhetoric aims to persuade the reason by means of imagination and Poetry aims to capture the imagination by making of reason. Persuasion has three main instruments, which are ethos, pathos and logos.
2- Stylistics
The linguistic investigation of text
There are three kinds of Stylistics
1- Grand style for elevated and ornamental speech
2- Middle Style which is not elevated
3-Low Style which is common in conversation
3- Anthropology
The most noteable anthropological linguist is Malinowski
Malinowski discovered that the moment the word or phrase of sentence of the whole text in any language is separated from the context of the situation in it is uttered, it becomes void and meaningless.
Anthropological investigation of little known cultures was supported by linguistic method known as ragmemics
4- Sociology
Sociology has developed an interest in the analyses of conversation as a mode of social organization and interaction. Another area of interest in the field of sociolinguistics is the study of language as a context for power to be exercised and maintained
5- Discourse analysis (conversation)
Discourse analysis is a branch of linguistics which investigation how we, as language users make sense of what we read in texts , understand what speakers mean and successfully take part in the complex activity called conversation .
Thus discourse analysis is concerned with language in use in social context and in particular with intention or dialogue between speakers.
6- Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study if the relationship between linguistics forms and the users of those forms. It the study of language as it used in the social context, concerning the meaning of language not language structure.


Cohesion
Halliday and Hassan's Model of Cohesion
1- Texture
2- Cohesive Tie
3 - Cohesion within the Sentence
Halliday and Hassan's Model Of Cohesion
Cohesion as Halliday and Hassan's argue is a semantic concept that refers to the choice of words and grammatical structures. It also refers to the relational of meaning that exist within the text.
A cohesive relation occurs when one element presupposes
(Requires) another in the sense that it can not be effectively decoded except by recourse to it
Texture
What distinguishes text from non-texture. a text derives its texture from the fact functions as a unity . In any text every sentence show some form of cohesion with a preceding sentence (anaphoric tie)
Cohesive Tie
A tie is a relation between two elements. A tie is thus a relational concept and it is also directional. The direction may be anaphoric with the presupposed element preceding or cataphoric with the presupposed element following
Cohesion Within the Sentence
Cohesive ties can occur within a sentence or between sentences. Cohesion is a semantic relation between an element in the text and some other element that can be located within the sentence or elsewhere in the text.
Kinds of Cohesion
1- Reference
2- Substitution
3- Ellipsis
4- Conjunction
5- Lexical Cohesion
Reference
In the case of reference certain items can not be interpreted semantically in their own right. They presuppose other elements by making reference to something else for their interpretation. These items are personals demonstratives and comparatives
Types of Reference
1- Personal
2- Demonstrative
3- Comparative


Personal
Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation through the category of Person. The category of personals includes Pronouns, Possessive determiners and possessive Pronouns.
Demonstrative
Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location on a scale of Proximity ( the – that – these – those – here – there )
Comparative
Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of Identity , Similarity and Difference ( Same , Identical , Similar , more , Less , fewer , Otherwise , Different )
Substitution
Substitution is the replacement of one item by another a substitution is used in place of the Repetition of Particularitem. The substitute item has the same structure function that for which is substitutes.
Types of Substitution
1- Nominal Substitution
2- Verbal Substitution
3- Clausal Substitution
Nominal substitution
The substitute one/ ones always function as head of group and can substitute only for an item which is it head of a nominal group.
Verbal Substitution
The verbal Substitute in English is do, this functions as head of a verbal group in the place that is occupied by the lexical verb and its position is always final in the group.
Clausal Substitution
In clausal Substitution, the entitle clause is presupposed and the Contrastive element is outside the clause
Ellipsis
Ellipsis is simply Substitution by Zero it is left unsaid as it is fact something understood .
Types Of Ellipsis
1- Nominal
2- Verbal
3- Lexical
Nominal Ellipsis
It is ellipsis within the nominal group. An elliptical nominal group may always be replaced its full non-elliptical equivalent .
Verbal Ellipsis
It is Ellipsis within the verbal group an elliptical verbal group presupposes one or more word from a previousverbal group.

Lexical Ellipsis
Modals Such as can, could, would, should and so on can not function as lexical verbs. Each one of them could be used elliptically without lexical verb.
Modals Such
Conjunction
Conjunctive elementsا are cohesiveم not in themselves but indirectly because of their specific meanings which presuppose the presence of other elements in the discourse.
Types of Conjunction
1- Additive
2- Adversative
3- Causal
4- Temporal
Additive
The words (and – or – nor) are used cohesively as conjunctions, all of them are additives.
The negative form of the additive relation is expressed simply as nor as in (Nor Can I) there are various other composite expressions.
Adversative
The basic meaning of the Adversative relation is something that is contraryمعاكس to one's expectation
Causal
The simple form of Causal relation is expressed by so, hence , therefore ,consequently , accordingly of that and so on .
, hence ,consequently , accordingly
Causal relations may refer to Result, Reason and Purposes
These are not distinguished in the simplest form of expression so for example, means as a result of this, for this reason and for this purpose.
اPurposes.
Temporal
The relation between two successiveم sentences may be simply one of sequence in time. In other words, the one is subsequent to the other. The temporal relation is expressed in its simpler form by then and also by next, afterwards, after that, subsequently and a number of other expressions.
successiveد subsequent
Lexical Cohesion
The selection of vocabulary results in lexical Cohesion
Lexical Relations as Cohesive Patterns
A lexical item Coheres with preceding occurrence of the same item whether or not the two have the same referent or indeed whether or not there is any referential relationship between them. The second occurrence may be as far as reference is concerned.
referentIdentical
1- Exclusive
2- Inclusive
3- Unrelated
Collocation
Association of lexical items that regular co-occur result in Cohesion for example two word like boys and girls cohere together although they are no synonyms
Context of Situation
All use of Language has a context. The textual features enable the discourse to cohere not only with itself but also with its context of situation. The three important elements of the context of situation are
1- Field
2- Tenor
3- Mode.
Field
Is the kind of activity within which the language plays some part.
Tenor
Is the interlocutors or Actors involved in the text
Mode
Refers to the channel or medium of communication
A text in this sentence can be either spoken or written
The context of situation thus is the immediate environment in which a text is functioning
The Concept of Situation is a very simple notiondesigned to account for the fact that language talks place in social contexts and makes connection with realities that make up those context. Thus the field may have the value (praising ) or (blaming ) tenor may allow choice between Parent – to – child or employer while mode might be speech or writing.
The relation between context and meaning
Context determines utterance meaning at three different levels in the analysis of text.
First: it may tell us what sentence has been uttered
Second: it may tell us what proposition has been expressed
Third: it may tell us that the position in question has been expressed with one kind of oratorical rather than other
The relationship of the text with its context of situation
As for field or what the text is about the field of a lyrical poem is usually love. The poet can use poetry as a context or expressing his emotion, his love.
The second heading is tenor in a love poem is the relation of the poet and his be loved. Third the mode of discourse of lyrical poem is writing.
De Beaugrande and Dressler,s Model of Cohesion
De Beaugrande and Dressler define Cohesion as "sticking together"
Cohesion in this case contributes to the stability of a text .since it results in continuity of occurrences, the notion of continuity is understood in this sense as relations based on the supposition that the various occurrences in the text and its situation of utilization are related to each other
De Beaugrande and Dressler discuss the following devices of cohesion
Repetition, junction, Omission, Tense and Aspect
Repetition
Lexical Repetition of the same words or Expressions is being the most noticeable sort
Ellipsis
De Beaugrande and Dressler argue that ellipsis is present only when text processing involves sensible discontinuity of the surface text.
Ellipsis functions by sharing of structural components among clauses of the surface text
Ellipsis has function of illustrating the trade of exchange compactness and clarity "a text that makes no use of Ellipsis is too redundant
Tense and Aspect
The categories of tense and aspect are organized very differently in different language . there are means to distinguish
1- past – present – and future
2- continuity , single points
3- antecedent , subsequent
4- finished , unfinished
Junction
De Beaugrande and Dressler classify junctions into four types
1- Conjunction: it links things which have the same status. it is often signaled by and , less often , by moreover, also

2- Disjunction :it links things which have alternative status and it is signaled by or
3- Contrajunction: it links things which have the same status but appearing incompatible. it is signaled most often by but and less often by however , yet , nevertheless, etc
4- Subordination: it links things when the status of one depends on that of the other. Subordination is signaled by because , since, as , while , therefore, etc
Subordinative the following types:
1- Cause
2- Reason
3- Proximity
4- Time