Aristotle - Greek Criticism

Aristotle أرسطو
Greek Criticism
النقد الإغريقي ( اليوناني القديم )

Career and works المهنة والعمل

ARISTOTLE was born in 38 B.C. at Stagira. He came to Athens at the age of seventeenth and became a disciple مريد ( تابع ) of Plato He stayed with his master till his death in 37 B.C. Thereafter بعد ذلك he went to Asia Minor and became a teacher there. He studied biology علم الأحياء for two years and in 32 B.C. became the tutor معلم خصوصيto Prince Alexander of Macedon. In 335 B.C. he founded أسس( أنشأ ) the Peripatetic school المدرسة المتجولة where he delivered lecturesيلقى المحاضرات on diverse subjects المواضيع المختلفة . He died in 322 B.C. He was a luminous writer كاتب مستنير and has about 100 volumes to his credit سمعته الحسنة.
The more important of his works are أهم أعماله
1. Dialogues الحوار المسرحي
2. On Monarchy في الملكية
3. Natural History التاريخ الطبيعي .
4. Organ or The Instrument of Correct Thinking أداة ( وسيلة ) التفكير السليم
5. Rhetoric علم البلاغة
6. Logic علم المنطق
7. Educational Ethics الأخلاقيات التربوية
8. Nicomachean Ethic
9. Physics علم الفيزياء ( الطبيعة)
10. Metaphysics علم ما وراء الطبيعة ( الميتافيزيقا)
11. Politics علم السياسة
12. Poetics. فن الشعر
its plan هدفه- brief synopsis المختصر ( الموجز)
value and significance القيمة والأهمية
- some shortcomings مواطن الضعف – العيوب
Aristotle is the first scientific literary critic أول ناقد أدبى علمى and his literary criticism is largely embodied تجسد in the Poetics which must have been penned أُلٍّفت by him after he settledثبت as teacher and investigatorمحقق in Athens. The Poetics is a short treatiseرسالة شعرية ( بحث ) of twenty six chapters and forty five pages neither exhaustiveشامل and comprehensiveشامل nor yet a coherent مترابطة منطقياً treatment of the subject معالجة الموضوع with which it deals. It does not seem to be a work intended المراد ( المطلوب ) for publication. It does not say much about Comedy laugh rather briefly إلى حد ما باختصار on the epicملحمى and the renownedمشهور conceptمفهوم of Catharsisتطهير العواطف بالفن has not been fully developed or explained. It is a lopsidedمائل إلى جانب work concerned مهتم with the Greek philosophers فلاسفة theory of tragedy
Plan الغاية – الهدف – الطريقة
The Poeticsفن الشعر is divisibleيمكن تقسيمه into the following six parts
(1) Chapter IV الرابع contain introductory remarks تعليق تقديمى ( إستهلالى ) on poetry القصيدة الشعرية and its classification وتصنيفهاinto different kinds including tragedy and comedy. Imitation تقليد is said to be the basic principle مبدأ common to all the arts.
(2) The next fourteen chapter are devoted to مكرس لـTragedy given and use formative مكون elements are discussed.
(3) chapters XX العشرون —XXII الثانى والعشرون are devoted to مكرس لـ a discussionمناقشة of poetic style and vocabulary etc.
(4) Chapter XXIII الثالث والعشرونdeal with يتعامل مع Narrative Poetry الشعر السردى ( القصصى ) and Tragedy.
(5) The epic الشعر الملحميis treated in brief and compared with tragedy in Chapters XXIV الرابع والعشرون and XXVI. السادس والعشرون
(6) Chapter XXV الفصل الخامس والعشرون
examines the objections of critics against poetry يدرس ( يبحث ) إعتراضات النقاد على قصائد الشعر . The objections are also answered. Commenting on التعليق على the schemeالمخطط and plan مشروع of the Poetic Abercrombie آبير كرومبى writes that the subject matter of the Poetics is not merely restrictedمحصور فقط to Greek literature but also to certain kinds of Greek lite¬rature. These are four in number and Aristotle groups them in pain according to their historical and aestheticجمالى ( فنى ) connexions.إتصال He supposesيتصور poetry to begin in two kinds either as heroicبطولى or as satiric poetryشعر هجائى but out of satiric comes comedy and out of heroic or epic comes tragedy. Since the nature of poetry thus disposesيهب itself into two pairs or kinds the principle solid for epic will with proper modifications for tragedy those applicable to satireهجاء will be similarly applicableملائم to comedy. But Aristotle regarded the historically later kind in each pair as a higher development of poetic art and as therefore requir¬ing fuller discussion than the earlier kind. Accordingly schemeوفقاً لذلك المخطط is took out the theory of the later development and then apply it to the earlier kind. But the Poetics as we have it is not complete The scheme of the discussion is unmistakablyبشكل واضح indicated مشار إليه but actually we are only given the discussionمناقشة of tragedy and the application of Its results to epic poetry. There can be no doubt that the original treatise بحثcontained a second part now lost in which comedy and satire were similarly treated.
Some Defects بعض العيوب
The work is in the nature of class notes of an intelligent teacher and has certain obvious defects
(1) The handling معاملة of the subject is disproportionate.غير متجانس
(2) Lyric poetryالشعر الغنائى has been practically ignored probably because (a) it was thought to constituteيؤلف- يشكل – يكون an elementary أولى sageحكيم poetic developmentنشوء
(6) it was supposed من المفترض to belong to the domain of music and not poetry proper and (c) it was assimilated in the drama.تم استيعاب ذلك في الدراما
(3) Most probably it is also for this last reason that diacriticمميز poetry of nature—has also been ignored (Comedy and Epic have been slightlyإهمال and cursorilyبسطحية treated
. (5) The larger part of the discussion is devoted to tragedy but here too the attention has been focused on the nature of the plot and the effects of tragedy. Tragedy was regarded in the age as the form in which all earlier poetry culminatedبلغ الذروة and this accounts for the excessive importance الأهمية المفرطة which Aristotle attaches to it أولع بها In this respect as in many others Aristotle was displaying con¬temporaryعصرى – معاصر influences and limitations.قصور – عجز
(6) The style is telegraphicشديد الإيجاز and highly concentrated a styleأسلوب for the initiated. for the familiar with Use authors terminologyعلم المصطلحات الفنية and though!. The Poetics is not self explanatory and It must constantlyباستمرار be interpreted by the other works of the Greek philosopher more specially. his Ethics .Politics. and he lost dialogue on the Poet.
(7). There are irregularitiesشواذ and an. Noisiestملئ بالضجة constant digressionsحيود عن الموضوع omissionsحذف contradictionsتناقضات repetitions تكراراتsnowing hasteسرعة and lack of revisionتنقيح . Often there are signs of hesitating uncertainly in that use of terminology.المصطلحات الفنية
(9) Aristotle's theories are not whollyتماماً the result of free and dispassionateحيادى reflection. they are conditioned by contemporary social and literary influ¬encesالتأثيرات الإجتماعية والأدبية المعاصرة . They are based on earlier theories and are also conditioned byمشروطة بـ the fact that it had to confuteنقض certain theories current at the time. The ruinالهدم treadداس of his argumentحجة is determined by Plato's attack Aristotle takes up the challengeتحدي of Plato at the end of its proceeds to establish the superiorityتفوق of poetry over its educational value. Much of it in that nature of it . on behalf فى مصلحة of poetry and so has all the defects of such Even to an accomplishedأتم – أنجز scholarعالم the meaning is The difficulty is further increasedزاد إلى حد ما by the fact that the average reader is not familiar with the Greek language its idiomلهجة syntax and Grammar. Interpretationsتفاسير differ from critic to critic to the great confusionإرتباك and bewildermentذهول- حيرة of the student.
(1) Aristotle's theories are based exclusively onتقوم حصرياً Greek poetry and drama with which he was familiar. Many of his viewsآراء have grown outdatedمهجورة – مهملة and unfitغير صالحة for universal applicationللتطبيق الشامل
Its Real Greatness عظمته الحقيقية
Despiteعلى الرغم من these defects the Pottiesالتافهة is an epochدور making work a work which is a storehouseمستودع of literary theories one of the great world books . a book whose influenceتأثير has been continuous and universal Some of the more important reasons of its greatness are
(1) Aristotle's the earlier oracular method طريقة (حكيمة) مهيبة in which critical pronouncementsتصريحات نقدية were supposedافترضنا to be the result of some prophetic insightالفهم التنبؤي العميق He also discardsيطرح جانباً Plato's dialectic method الطريقة الجدلية (use of dialogue) as inadequateغير ملائم for arriving at a positive and coherent متماسك statementبيان of truth
(2) The Greek Philosopher starts from concrete factsحقائق مادية . exist¬ing Greek poetry and through analysis of facts arrives at his principles and generalizations for which like a scientistالعالم he claims no finalityإدعى بعدم نهائية .. exploratoryإستكشافى and tentativeمؤقت – غير نهائى . It means attempt to arrive to A truth than the assertion توكيدof some preconceived notions التصور المسبق للأفكار . As Gilbert Murray points out it is a first attempt aboundingملئ بـ genius to build up in the region of creative artحقل الفن الإبداعى a rational order ترتيب معقول - منطقى like that he had already established in the region of the physical sciencesحقل العلوم الطبيعية .
(3) Throughout طوال he studies poetry in relation to man He tracesيستشف – يكتشف it back to the fundamental instincts of humanغريزة أساسية للإنسان
the instinct of imitation غريزة التقليد and the instinct for harmonyغريزة التناسق - الانسجام
his method of inquiry is psychologicalنفسية It is the first psychological of the poetic processعملية . Tragedy he justifies by its emotional effect يبرر بتأثيراته العاطفية
(4) In The Poetics Aristotle also originatesينشىء the historical method of inquiryالطريقة التاريخية للاستعلام . He notes different phases صور – أشكال in the evolution of Greek poetry and thus his work becomes a starting point for subse¬quentلاحق literary histories.الحكايات التاريخية
(5) Though Aristotle never claimed بالرغم من أن أرسطو لم يدعى بأن any Poetics is that it contains so much that is of permanentدائم and universal interestاهتمام عام . And this is so because the literature on which it was based was no artificial product of a sophisticated متكلف – متطور society but the natural expression of a race guided solely by what was elementalجوهرى in human nature.
(6) The work is full of ideas that are as true today as they true when it was written.
(7) Aristotle's greatness عظمة أرسطو lies in the fact that he raisedأبرز the essential problems though he was not always successful in providing solutions.بالرغم من أنه لم يكن دائماً ناجح فى تقديم الحلول The Poetics is thought provoking تفكير مزعج it is a great irritant to thought مثير للتفكير. Aristotle asks the right type of questions and literary theory has grownنمت and advancedتقدمت by seeking insidersالمطلعين to Aristotle's questions .
Its Universal Significance أهميته العالمية
For all these reasons the Poetics is an important landmarkمعالم in the history of literary criticism. It is the most significant thingالشيء الأكثر أهمية for the study of literature that has come down to us from Greek civilization. First of all it represents the final judgment of the Greeks themselves upon two and perhaps the leading two Hellenicهلينى inven¬tions Epic Poetry and Tragic Drama. Aristotle has systematizedمرتب منهجياً and completed the work of his predecessors سلف لـwith great independence of judgmentحرية الحكم . The brief treatiseالبحث المختصر is important secondly because directly or indirectly it has commandedقاد more attention than any other book of literary criticism so that the course of literary historyسلوك تاريخ الأدب after it is not intelligible مفهوم – واضح without an acquaintanceإطلاع – معرفة with the Poetics at first hand whether in the original or through a translation. But further علاوة على ذلك the work has a permanentualمستمر – دائم quite apart from historical considerationsاعتبارات تاريخية . Aristotle's fundamental assumptions إفتراضات القواعد الأساسية لأرسطو and the generalizationsتعميم upon which he mainly insists أصرت إلى حد بعيد are as true of any modern literature as they are of his own. That a work of art for instanceعلى سبيل المثال a drama the like—may be compared to a living organism نظام فعال every part of whose structure is essential for the function of the whole is a conception having alidity for all ages. And the same may also be said of contentionجدال that poetry has its own standard of correctnessصحة or fitness التوافق and is to be judged primarilyمبدئياً by its own laws. The Poetics is further valuableذو قيمة for its method and perspectiveوجهة نظر . Simply and directly it lays emphasis uponتأكيد على what is of first importance upon the initial structureالتركيب الأولى of a poem قصيدة rather than the meter upon he end and aim of tragedy in its effect upon the emotions rather than on the history of the Chorus. Profound thoughtsمفاهيم صعبة are expressed a lan¬guage suited to a scientific inquiry. Starting with the Platonic أفلاطونى that a literary form an oration خطاب – خطبة for example or a tragedy randiesصاخب – شهوانى which must necessarilyبالضرورة conform more nearly than it By a penetrating خارق – نافذ scrutinyتدقيق of these crucial حاسم – فاصل instancesاقتراحات in tragedy he defines the proper effectالتأثير الحقيقي of this kind of literature upon the ideal spectatorالمتفرج المثالى namelyيعنى the effect which he termsthe catharsis of pity and fear التخلص من الشفقة والخوف the purgation of the two disturbingتشويش emotionsالعواطف – الأحاسيس The reasoningالاستنتاج from function back to form and form function he tests each select tragedy and every part he wave in which the part and the whole conducedيساعد على إحداث to this he arrives at the conception مفهومof an ideal structure for tragedy a patternمثال which though never fully realized in any existing Greek dramaالمدرك تماماً من أن أى دراما إغريقية موجودة must yet constituteتشكل حتى الآن the standard fireيستلهم all of its kind.
Finally the Poet if it be sympathetically studiedمدروسة بشكل عاطفى maybe thoughtتفكير to have a special value at the present time when a school has arisenظهرت led by Professor Croceقادها البروفيسور كروس whose view is that there really are no types in art and henceإذا no standards of interpretation and criticism save the aim of the individual writer or painter. In his essay Of .Education Milton alludesيلمح to some antidoteترياق in one part of literature to an evil tendencyالنزعة إلى الشر in another. Whenever كلماthe Poetic of Aristotle receivesيدخل فى the attention it demands it servesينفع as an antidote to anarchyمجتمع مثالى in criticism. To concludeلكى نختتم with the words of Gilbert Murray The book is of permanent value as a mere intellectual achievementمجرد إنجاذ فكرى as a store of information about Greek literature and as an original or firsthand statement تصريح مباشر of what we may call the classical viewالرؤية التقليدية of artistic criticismللنقد الفكرى It does not regardيحترم poetry as a matter of unanalyzed inspirationكقضية إلهام غير محللة it makes no concessionحق ممنوح to personal whims الأهواء الشخصية or fashion or ennuiملل . It tries by rationalمنطقى methods to find out what is good in art . and what makes it good accepting the belief مذهب that there is just as trulyبصدق a good way and many bad ways in poetry as in moralsأخلاقيات or in playing billiards. This is no place to try to sum up its main conclu¬sionsيجمع استنتاجاته الرئيسية . But it is characteristicصفة مميزة of the classical viewالنظرة الكلاسيكية that Aristotle laysيضع his greatest stressأعظم تأكيداته first on the need for Unityانسجام- إتفاق in a work of art the need that each part should subserveيساعد – يسهل the whole. while irrelevan¬ces غير متصل بالموضوع however brilliantرائع in themselves should be cast away يرمى - يلقى and next on the demand that great art must have for its subject the great way of living. These judgments have often been misunderstoodأسيء فهمها but the truth in them is profoundصعب فهمه and goes near to the heart of things.
Tragedy Distinguished from Other Poetic Formsالتراجيديا تتميز عن الأشكال الشعرية الأخرى
Aristotle begins by pointing out that imitationالمحاكاة is the common basis مبدأ شائع of all the fine Arts which however differ from each other in their medium of imitation their objects of imitation and their mannerأسلوب of imitation. Thus poetry differs from paintingالرسم and music in its medium of imitationالوسطية فى المحاكاة . Poetry itself is divisible into epicملحمى and dra¬maticدرامى on the basis of its manner of imitationعلى أساس طريقتها فى المحاكاة . The Epic narratesيحكى while the Dramatic represents through actionيمثل من خلال الحدث The Dramatic poetry itself is distinguished اشتهر as Tragicتراجيدى or Comicهزلى on the basis of its objects of imitation. Tragedy imitatesيحاكى – يقلد men as betterأحسن and comedy as worseأسوأ then they reallyفى الواقع are. In this way does Aristotle establishيؤسس the unique nature of Tragedyطبيعة فريدة للتراجيديا and differentiatesويميزها it from the other kinds of poetry.
A Superior Form الأسلوب الأعظم قيمة
Nextبعد ذلك Aristotle proceeds to traceيرجع the originالأصل and development نشوء of poetry. In the beginning poetry was of two kinds. There were Iambsشعر التفعيلة . or invectivesطعون - ذم on the one hand and hymnsتراتيل- تسابيح on the gods or panegyricsإطراءات – مدائح on the great on the other. The first Iambs البحر العروضى or invec¬tives developed into تطور إلى satiricهجائى and the hymns تراتيل – ترانيم and panegyricsالإطراء أو المديح into Epic or Heroic poetryالشعر البطولى . Out of Heroic poetry developed Tragedy and out of satiric came the Comedyهزلى . As Tragedy is a later develop¬ment it is thereforeولذلك a higher kind than the Epic. In Chapter XXVI of The Poetics the Greek philosopher compares Tragedy with Epic in a number of respects يحترم and demonstratesيبرهن this superiorityتفوق – تميز . Both Epic and Tragedy imitate serious subjectsيحاكى المواضيع الجادة in a grand kind offersمحاولة ضخمة but they differ in as much as Epic imitates only in one kind offersمحاولة both or its Choral الكورال odesقصائد من الشعر الغنائى and its dialogueحوار ثنائى . The Epic is more lengthyمطول جداً and more comprehensiveأكثر شمولاً but the Tragedy has much greater concentration تركيز أكبر and so more effectiveمؤثر بشكل أكبر . Besides this بالإضافة إلى ذلك the Tragedy has all the elements which the Epic has elegant Tragedyتراجيديا رائعة which the Epic does not have. The Epic lacksيفتقر إلى music and spectacleالمشهد which are important constituentsأجزاء أساسية هامة of Tragedy and which enhance its effectيزيد من تأثيرها . It has also reality of presentationواقعية العرض التقديمى and unity of action both of which the epic lacksوحدة الحدث التى يفتقر إليها الشعر الملحمى. The Tragedy is superiorالتراجيديا هى النموذج الأرفع مقاماً became All the parts of an epic are includedمضمنة in Tragedy but those of Tragedy are not all of them to be found in the Epic. After this preliminary discussionالمناقشة التمهيدية Aristotle comes to a confideالمؤتمن على the natureطبيعة and function of Tragedy. He defines Tragedy as imitation Of an action tedious ممل complete and of an entertainيسلى
It's Objects of Imitationأهدافه فى التقليد (المحاكاه )
Further علاوة على ذلك the definition first distinguishesيميز tragedy from other forms of poetry
(1) Its objects of imitation هدفها من المحاكاة are serious actionsأفعال جادة henceولهذا السبب it is different from Comedy which imitates the nonzeroالكوميديا التى تحاكى اللاشىء ! Humphrey House explains the word seriousجاد – وقور as meaning trunk or imperialistمؤيد للاستعمار .
Secondly Tragedy on the basis of its manner lionالنصيب الأكبر is distinguished from the Epic قصيدة قصصية which narratesتحكى and does no represent through actionولا تمثل من خلال الحدث .
Thirdly on the basis of its medium إعتدالها it distinguished from the lyricتتميز عن قصيدة الشعر الغنائى . It employsتستعمل – توظف several kinds of embellishingعدة أنواع من الزخرفة
in different parts in dialogue and song in the chord partsفى أجزاء مختلفة من الحوار الثنائى والأغنية والعاطفة .
It's Plot حبكته المسرحية
Nextبعد ذلك Aristotle examinesيدرس the plot of Tragedyحبكة الرواية التراجيدية . Tragedy imitate actionsالتراجيديا تحاكى الأحداث and its plot consists of a logicalمنطقي and inevitableمحتم sequence تتابع an events أحداث . The action it imitates is its plotالفعل الذى تحاكيه هو حبكة الرواية . The action must be completeالفعل يجب أن يكون كامل . it must have a beginning a middle and an endويجب أن يكون له بداية ووسط ونهاية . The beginning is that from which further actionحدث آخر flows out and which is until حتىLegibleواضح – مقروء in itself and not consequentناتج عن or dependentمتوقف على on any previous Situationموقف سابق .
A satisfying end النهاية المرضية is that which follows inevitably هى التى تلى المحتوم from which has gone before but which does not lead to further actionولا تقود إلى فعل أبعد . It martسوق the completion إكتمال of the tragic action الحدث التراجيدى . The middle is that which follow inevitablyالتدفق المحتوم upon على وشك what has goneالنهاية before and also leads on to an inevitable conclusionويقودها إلى الختام المحتوم
. At all points Aristotle emphasizesيؤكد أن that the tragic action must be in accordanceمطابقة – انسجام with the laws of probability and necessityقانون الاحتمال والضرورة ! The action for plot of a tragedy must be of a certain magnitudeأهمية مؤكدة and the word has been used in the senseإحساس of sizeضخامة or kinglyجليل – فخم . It belongs enough to ملائمة بشكل كاف لـ permitرخصة – إجازة an orderly بشكل منهجى development تطوير of action الأداء to a catastropheالحدث الاخير فى العمل الأدبى ( كارثة )
Later on Aristotle divides the plots of Tragedy into two kind Simple and Complex. He callsيسمى a plot simple when the change in fortunesحظوظ – مصائر of the hero takes placeتحدث without Propertyصفة مميزة and Plot is complex when it involvesتتضمن – تستخدم one or the other or both fortunes المصائر- الحظوظ of epic hero
Dramatistالكاتب المسرحى must depend for his effects on his own powers rather thanبدلا من on Spectacleالمشهد . hence rites Fearمذهب الخوف and pityالشفقة can be produced by spectacular meansوسائل رائعة ( ) but it much better to produce them by the way you write your play This is one of those platitudesتفاهة – ابتذال of Aristotle which human nature has always ignored and the wisdom حكمة of which it has to learn again and again through experience. There can be no worse enemyالعدو الأسوأ of the art of the dramatistأدب الكتابة المسرحية than the theatre managerمدير المسرح and reliance onالإعتماد على the theatricalمسرحى and the sensationalالحسى – المثير has spoiledأفسد – أتلف many an excellent playمسرحية ممتازة . _ Thoughtالتفكير the power of laying whatever can be said يمكن أن يقال or what is appropriateيخصص to the occasionالضرورة Thought is required where a statement is made or some statement is proved مثبتة or disapproved. Thought is the intellectual element عنصر فكرى in a tragedy and it is expressed through the speech of a character يعبر عنها من خلال كلام الشخصية . This implies يدل ضمناً على that only such speeches are significantهام as express the views and feelingsمشاعر of a character. This in itself brings out the importance of language as Diction in tragedyأهمية اللغة كأسلوب كلام فى التراجيديا . It is the language which gives us the thoughtsالأفكار and feeling of the various Dramatic Personateالشخص الذى يقوم بدور درامى and it is through speech that their character is first revealed يوحى إلى that is why the language of Tragedy must be unusually expressiveتعبيرى نادر . Aristotle discusses the question at length in all its aspectsهيئات and is the first writer to emphasize the expressive valueالقيمة التعبيرية or metaphori¬cal languageاللغة المجازية . He considers (metaphor as the greatest of all. Metaphorالكناية is the source of the beauty and vividness of language.مصدر الجمال والحياة فى اللغة As general ruleكقاعدة عامة the language of Tragedy must be clear aimهدف واضح it must not be meanوضيع . The language must be clear but also dignifiedموقر and elevatedمهذب . In the interest of clarityوضوح it must use familiarمألوف and current words but rare نادرand unfamiliar words must be introduced تقدم judiciouslyبحكمة to impart elevation.لنقل التهذيب
Characterization خلق ( وصف – تصوير ) الشخصيات الروائية
As regardsفيما يتعلق بـ characterization in general Aristotle lays down يضع four essential qualitiesصفات جوهرية .
Firstly the charactersالشخصيات must be good
secondly they must be appropriateملائمة – مناسبة
thirdly they must have likenessالمظهر الخارجى
fourthly they must have consistency.الثبات والتماسك
The charactersالأشخاص – الأدوار should be good but not too good or perfect. Wickedشرير characters may be introduced if requir¬ed by the plot. Aristotle is only against the wanton ضد الإسراف فى القسوة introduction of evil and wickedness. By appropriatenessالملائمة – الموافقة Aristotle means that they must be true to type. they must have the characteristics خصائص – صفات مميزة which are common to the profession rankطبقة حرفية or class to which a particular (متفرد ) خاصcharacter belongs. By likeness Aristotle may mean either of two things
Firstly the characters must be lifelikeمحاكى للحياة الواقعية بدقة they must be true representatives ممثل لـof actual human nature
Secondly they must be like the traditionalعرف – تقليد or historical personageشخصية on whom they are modeledنموذجى and whose name they bear. The characters must show a consistentثابت development if there is inconsistentمتضارب – غير ثابت character he must be represented as inconsistentمتضارب throughout فى كل مكان There must be no sudden Comingقدوم مفاجئ to a consideration of the ideal tragic heroفى إهتمام ( تفكير) البطل التراجيدى المثالى .
Aristotle lays down that he should neither be perfectlyبإتقان good nor utterlyتماماً bad ( ولا يكون كويس بنسبة 100% ولا وحش بنسبة 100% )
He should be a man neither of a blamelessبرئ character nor a depraveيفسد الأخلاق villainسافل – خسيس . He is a man of ordinaryعادى weaknesses and virtues like curوغد – لئيم selves leaningمائل more to the side of good than of evil occupyingيشغل منصب a position of eminence السمو – العلو and falling into ruinالخراب from that eminence not because of any deliberateمتعمد wickednessالشر but. because of some error of judgmentخطأ فى الحكم on his part In short he should be a man such as is likely to help take tragedy in performingآداء its properمناسب function that of bringing about a Catharsisالتخلص – التطهر of the emotion of pity and fearعاطفة الشفقة والخوف . Obviouslyبوضوح ¬
we feel pityالشفقة and fearالخوف because of some error of judgment
Its significanceأهميته ودلالته
While all the six listed above are essential to tragedy and have always .been employed by poetsالشعراء the most important to Aristotle is plot . It is theory the arrangementالترتيبات of inceptionالابتداء and tragic soوبالتالى it arouses توقظthe emotion of is the function of tragedy. (a) showing a tragic perfectly passingالتحول التام from .happiness to .misery التعاسة
(6) showing إظهار a bad man ruingيندم – يأسف from miseryالتعاسة to happiness and (c) showing an extremely bad man falling from happiness to misery إظهار إنحدار الإنسان المفرط فى السوء من السعادة إلى التعاسة . The best trace plotأفضل آثار الحبكة الدرامية is one which a good man but not a perfectly good one suffering المعاناةas a consequence كنتيجة of some errorخطأ or faultغلطة Hamatria on his own part.
Plot and Character A Comparative Study
As regardsبالنظر إلى the comparative importanceالأهمية المقارنة of Plot and Character Aristotle is quite emphatic thatيؤكد تماماً على أن Plot is more important than Characterالحبكة الدرامية أهم من الشخصية . He goes to the extent of saying that وقد ذهب إلى حد القول بأن there can be a tragedy without character but none without plotيمكن أن تتواجد التراجيديا بدون شخصية ولكنها لا تتواجد بدون الحبكة الدرامية . In order to explain that plot is the fundamentalأساسى thing the Greek philosopher compares Plot to the outline sketch of a painterالمخطط التمهيدي لمسودة الرسام . Just as coloursتماماً كاللون however beautiful have no meaning and significance without the outlineومع ذلك فالجمال ليس له معنى ولا أهمية بدون هذا المخطط التمهيدى so also the tragedy has no soul no significance without Plot وكذلك أيضاً فإن التراجيديا ليس لها روح ولا أهمية بدون الحبكة الردامية . It is Plot which like the painters outline gives meaning and significance to character. إنها الحبكة التى تشبه مخطط الرسام والتى تعطى المعنى والأهمية للشخصية
The Unitiesالوحدة ( الإتفاق – الإنسجام )
Aristotle emphasizes only one of the three unities .he is against pluralityتعدد of action as it weakensيضعف the tragic effect. There might be a number of incidentsأحداث عرضية . but they must be causally connected with each other للسبب الذى يصل كلاً بالآخر مبينة أن تكون ولكنها يجب and they must all one effectويجب أن يكون لها تأثير واحد the effect aimed at by the dramatistالتأثير الذى يهدف إليه الكاتب المسرحي . As regardsبالنظر إلى the Unity of Time Aristotle only once mentions ذكره مرة واحدة it in relation to dramatic Action. Comparing the epic and the Tragedy he writes Tragedy tries as far as possibleإلى أقصى حد ممكن to live within a single revolution ثورة فردية of the sun or only slightlyباستخفاف to exceed It يتجاوزهاwhereasحيث أن the epic observesيلاحظ no limits in its time of action. It is merely a suggestionمجرد إقتراح tries as far as possible there is nothing here that can be called a rule and indeedوبالفعل several of the Greek tragediesالعديد من التراجيديون الإغريق with which Aristotle must had been familiar far exceedيتجاوز this time limitقيد . He never mentions the Unity of Place at all or evenحتى says that it is desirableمستحب to confine dictionليقيد أسلوب الكلام to a single placeمكان مفرد . The doctrineالتعاليم الدينية of the three unitiesالوحدات الثلاثة which has figuredالمرقمة so much كثيرة جداًin literary criticism since the Renaissance cannot be laid to his accountلا يمكن أن توضع فى حسابه . He is not the author of it لم يكن هو مؤلفها . it was foisted on himزيفت عليه by Renaissance criticsنقاد عصر النهضة of Italy and France. الطليان والفرنسيين

Sources of Tragic Plheasureمصادر السرور التراجيدي
The end of poetry is to give pleasure and tragedy has its own
distinctive pleasureالسرور المميز . as well as the pleasure which is common to all poetry. According to Aristotleطبقاً لأرسطو the function of poetry is to give a certain refinedيهذب pleasure and in this he goes counterعارض to the view that the poet is primarilyأساسي an ethical teacherمعلم أخلاقى . Each kind of poetry has its own aesthetic pleasureالسرور الجمالى ( الفنى ) . However this properالملائم – المناسب aesthetic pleasure possible only when the requirementمتطلبات or moralityأخلاقي are satisfied يرضى. he considers pleasures as essential function as only incidentalعرض . . Aristotle recognized the Value of the emotional effects
The sources of tragic pleasure pointed outأشير إليها by him may be listed as follows:-مدرج فى قائمة كالتالى
(1) The pleasure is derived partlyمشتق جزئياً from our natural senseإحساس harmonyإيقاع and rhythmالوزن الشعرى . and rhymeسجع ( قافية ) are not necessary. they certainlyبالتأكيد enhanceيزيد ( يحسن ) the pleasure of poetry
(2) It is also derived partly from the instinct of imitationغريزة المحاكاة it is pleasure arising from من ينشأ seeing a thing or action well imitatedمقلد بشكل جيد . A successful tragedyالتراجيديا الناجحة gives pleasure because it satisfiesترضى our basic instinct of imitation.غريزتنا الأساسية فى التقليد ( المحاكاة)
(3) Poetry is imitation الشعر هو المحاكاة and imitation of something with which we are not familiar increases our knowledgeمعرفة and to know to learn is pleasure.
(4) But these two sources of pleasure ولكن هذين المصدرين للسرورare common to all poetryمبتذلين ( شائعين ) فى كل الشعر . thatكذلك the distinctiveمميز pleasure of tragedy The peculiar متميز – خاص pleasure of tragedy caused by the Catharsisالتخلص من of the emotions of pity and fear.
(5) Tragedy imitates action التراجيديا تحاكى الحدث
a life its painالألم and miseryالتعاسة and if this imitation is well-doneأحسن صنعه it is gripping يستحوذ على and absorbingمستغرق للإنتباه . There is a total emotionalتعاطف كامل of the spectatorالمتفرج with the person who suffer
the stage Peripateticالمسرح المتنقل – المتجول by Aristotle because they heightenيزيد – يضاعف the seductive power قوة الإغراء —the gripping interest of the action والإستحواز على الإهتمام بالأداء . Pure pleasureالسرور الخالص results fromينتج من the exercise of our emotions, senses and thoughts on the tragic action تدريب مشاعرنا وأحاسيسنا وأفكارنا على الأداء ( العمل ) التراجيدى
In this way we simile throughout tears.بهذه الطريقة نضحك من خلال الدموع
(6) .Tragedy pleasure السرور التراجيدى because it results inلأنها تنتج من enhanced of life audits problems.تحسين سجل المشاكل الحياتية It provides a kind of inner pleasureوهو ما يعطينا نوع من السرور الداخلي
(7) The parity of the plot التماثل ( التساوي ) في الحبكة الدرامية
the diction أسلوب الكلام and the spectacleالمشهد ( العرض المسرحي ) etc. are other sources of pleasure in a tragedy.مصدر آخر للسرور فى التراجيديا
Courtesies الكياسة ( اللطافة – المجاملة ) – الإحترام
Such are the main features of Aristotle's theory of Tragedy.تلك هى الميزات المسرحية لنظرية أرسطو فى التراجيديا
The theory might have its weaknessesالنظرية يمكن أن يكون لها نقائص - مواطن ضعف Aristotle know only Greek Tragedyأرسطو يدرك طبيعة التراجيديا الإغريقية فقط
his conclusionsاستنتاجاته are based entirely on the drama with which was familiar تعتمد كليةً على الدراما التى كانت مألوفة and henceولهذا السبب often his views are not of universal application فإن آراؤه غير قابلة للتطبيق العام
. But despite all that وبالرغم من كل ذلك can be said againstوفى مقابل ذلك يمكن أن يقال it Aristotle theory of Tragedy is the foundation أن نظرية أرسطو فى التراجيديا هى حجر الأساسon which all discussions of literary aestheticsلكل بحوث ودراسات الجمال الأدبى has most securely based Aristotle's viewsتعتمد وباطمئنان على آراء أرسطو aught have been challenged but their is the history of Tragedy. لا شيء( لا أعرف من ) يعترضها ولكنها هى تاريخ التراجيديا
Theory of imitation نظرية التقليد أو المحاكاة
Imitation is a Creative Processالمحاكاة عملية خلاقة
Aristotle did not invent the term Imitationأرسطو لم يخترع مصطلح المحاكاة . Plato was the to use the word in connection with poetryأفلاطون إستخدم الكلمة فيما يخص الشعر but Aristotle breathed Its nature ولكن أرسطو إستنشق جوهرها وطبيعتها
Comparison with Imitation a Creative Processمقارنة بين المحاكاة والعملية الخلاقة
The Common Basis of All the Artsالعنصر الأساسى فى كل الآداب poetry with the other fine arts which differentiates الشعر مع الفنون الجميلة الأخرى التى تجعله مختلفاً من حيث الشكل والوظائف fine arts and it is this fact . the useful of the fine arts from the other Categoryفائدة الفنون الجميلة من بين الفئات الأخرى (Aristotle) While Plato had equatedيوازن بينها وبين الموسيقى it with music. but in his theory Ration of the surface or the emotions of men becomes a representation theory ولكنه ( أفلاطون ) فى نظريته يزودنا بالمظهر الخارجى أو عواطف الإنسان وبذلك أصبحت نظريته نظرية تمثيل ( تصوير)
Idea Possibility as Object of Imitationفكرة الإمكانية كهدف للمحاكاة
Epic repressiveكبحى – قمعى
Coinedاختراع عبارة جديدة representsيمثل men of a lower type worseالنوع الأدنى والأسوأ مما هم عليه than they are. Aristotle does not discuss the third possibilityأرسطو لم يناقش الإمكانية الثالثة . It means that poetry does not in a photographic realismوذلك يعنى أن الشعر لا يتواجد فى الواقعية التصويرية. In this connection Aristotle knew nothing of the realistic or fleshly school of fiction the school of Zola or of Gissing وبهذا التسلسل المنطقى فإن أرسطو لم يدرى شيئاً عن مدرسة الرواية الواقعية أوالحسية وهى مدرسة زولا و وجيسنج and soوكذلك he ignoresتجاهل the third possibility mentioned aboveالإمكانية الثالثة المذكورة بأعلاه .. Now. he sass والآن هو يجيب بوقاحةit is just possible to imagine life exactly as it isأنه يمكن تخيل الحياة تماماً كما هى فقط . but the exciting thingالشىء المثير is to imagine life as it might beهو تخيل الحياة كما يجب أن تكون and it is then وعند ذلك فإن that imagination ذلك الخيال becomes an impulseسيصبح دافعاً ( حافزاً ) capable of قادراً على inspiring poetry الإلهام بالشعر. Imagination may do no more than concentrate the actuality by drooping out all its insignificant passages الخيال ربما لا يفعل شيئاً أكثر من التركيز على الحقيقة بإسقاط الإجراءات الغير هامة . But that will be enough to make the resultant poetry (or literature) something quite different ولكن ذلك سيكون كافياً لجعل محصلة أو نتيجة الشعر أو الأدب شيئاً مختلفاً تماماً. that copy of the world which Plato's condemnation assumed to be. تلك هى نسخة من العالم الذى تكونه إنتقادات ( إدانات) أفلاطون المزعومة ( الزائفة)
Comparison with Plato's viewمقارنة مع وجهة نظر أفلاطون
Aristotle by his theory of imitation أرسطو فى نظريته عن المحاكاة
answers the charge of Plato to poetry أجاب عن هجوم أفلاطون على الشعر
is an imitation of shadow thrice removed from truth محاكاة الخيال مراراً وتكراراً يبعدنا عن الحقيقة
and that the poet beguiles us with lies.وأن الشعر يخدعنا بالأكاذيب
Plato condemned poetry onأفلاطون أدان الشعر بأنه
he ground that in theory nature of thingsودافع بأن نظرية طبيعة الأشياء
poets can have no idea of truth.الشعراء يمكن ألا يكون لديهم فكرة عن الحقيقة
The phenomenal world is not the reality but a copy of the reality in the mind of the Supreme. العالم الظاهري ليس هو الواقع (الحقيقة ) وإنما هو نسخة من الواقع فى العقل الأعلى
The poet imitates this copy الشعر يحاكى هذه النسخة
the objects and phenomena of the world which are shadowy and unreal. الأشياء والظواهر فى العالم هى وهمية وغير حقيقية
Hence إذن
Plato concluded that poetry is. thrice removed from reality it being a mere shadow of shadows أفلاطون يستنتج أن الشعر هو تكرار يخرج عن الواقعية وهو فى جوهره مجرد خيال فى خيال
The poetics have no knowledge of truth فن الشعر ليس فيه أي دراية عن الحقيقة أو الصدق
they are liars and deceive us with the lies which they tell in their poetry. إنهم كاذبون يخدعوننا بالأكاذيب التى يذيعونها فى أشعارهم
Poetry is therefore the mother of lies. وبناء على ذلك فإن الشعر هو أم الأكاذيب
Aristotle on the contrary tells us thatوعلى عكس ذلك فإن أرسطو يخبرنا بأن
art imitates not the mere shows of things but the ideal reality embodied finery object of the world
فن المحاكاة ليس فقط فى إظهار الأشياء ولكنه الواقعية المثالية متضمنة أحلى الأشياء فى العالم
The process of nature is a creative process تقدم الطبيعة هو عملية خلاقة
everywhere in nature there is a ceaseless and upward progress فى كل مكان فى الطبيعة يوجد تقدم دائم نحو الأعلى
everything in nature is constantly growing and moving up كل شىء فى الطبيعة ينمو باستمرار ويترقى لمنزلة أعلى
and the poet imitates this upward movement of nature.والشعر يحاكى حركة الطبيعة فى الحركة نحو الأعلى
Art reproduces the original not as it is but as it appears to the senses الأدب يتوالد ويتناسل ليس كما هو ولكن كما يبدو للمشاعر والأحاسيس
it is reproduced imaginatively. إنه يتوالد بشكل خيالى
Art moves in a world of images and reproduces the external accord in mind.حركة الأدب فى عالم الخيال وتوالد الإنسجام الخارجى فى العقل
Thus the poet does not copy This is so because of the imaginative colouring of reality in the process of poetic imitation.وبناءً عليه فإن الشعر ليس نسخة وذلك بسبب التلوين الخيالى للواقعية فى عملية المحاكاة الشعرية
Poetry is thus a creative process giving us the poets conception of truth . وبالتالى فإن الشعر هو عملية إبداعية تعطينا فهم وتصور الشعراء عن الحقيقة ( الواقع )
telling us what according to him men ought to be accor¬ding to the law of probability and necessity.تخبرنا ماذا يجب على الإنسان أن يكون طبقاً لقانون الإحتمال والضرورة
The real and the ideal from Aristotle's point of view are not opposites.
الصدق والمثالية فى وجهة نظر أرسطو ليسا متضادين
the ideal is the real shorn of chance and accident a purified form of reality. المثالية هى الشورن الحقيقى للفرصة والمصادفة المطهرة من الحقيقة
And it is this higher reality which is the object of poetic imitation. وهى الحقيقة العليا للشئ فى المحاكاة الشعرية
Idealization and universality is achieved by divesting the real of all that is accidental transient and particular. معالجة المواضيع الأدبية بطريقة مثالية وعمومية يتحقق بتجريد حقيقة الكل التى تكون عرضية وعابرة وخاصة
Poetry thus imitates the ideal and the universal it is idealized representation of character emotion وبناء عليه فإن الشعر يحاكى المثالية والعمومية ( الشمولية ) تجعل تمثيل مشاعر وأحاسيس الشخصية مثالية
Action under forms manifest in sense والتصرف ( العمل ) يظهر فى الشعور والإحساس
Poetic truth therefore is higher than historical truth.ولذلك فإن الحقيقة الشعرية أعلى من الحقيقة التاريخية